Syllabus Bifurcation of Hindi (301)-New

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Material in PDF	PDF -Hindi	Video	Sign Language Video	Audio	Tutor Mark Assignment	Learner's Guide Hindi	Worksheet Hindi
पुस्तक-1			-	-	Tutor Mark Assignment	-	General Instructions for Worksheet
प्रथम पृष्ठ- पुस्तक-1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
1. निर्गुण भक्तिकाव्य : कबीर और जायसी		-	-	-	-	LG-1	कार्यपत्रक-1
2.सगुण भक्तिकाव्य : तुलसीदास, सूरदास और मीराँबाई		-	-	-	-	LG-2	कार्यपत्रक-2
3. रीतिकाव्य : बिहारी और पद्माकर		-	-	-	-	LG-3	कार्यपत्रक-3
4. छायावादी काव्य : सूर्यकांत त्रिपाठी 'निराला' और जयशंकर प्रसाद		-	-	-	-	LG-4	-
5. उत्तर छायावादी कविता : दिनकर और बच्चन		-	-	-	-	LG-5	कार्यपत्रक-5
6. नयी कविता : अज्ञेय और भवानीप्रसाद मिश्र		-	-	-	-	LG-6	कार्यपत्रक-6
7. साठोत्तरी कविता : सर्वेश्वरदयाल सक्सेना और दुष्यंत कुमार		-	-	-	-	LG-7	कार्यपत्रक-7
8. समकालीन कविता (आज की कविता):  राजेश जोशी तथा नरेश सक्सेना		-	-	-	-	LG-8	कार्यपत्रक-8
9. चीफ़ की दावत : भीष्म साहनी		-	-	-	-	LG-9	कार्यपत्रक-9
10. पीढ़ियाँ और गिट्टियाँ : हरिशंकर परसाई		-	-	-	-	LG-10	कार्यपत्रक-10
11. दो कलाकार : मन्नू भंडारी		-	-	-	-	कार्यपत्रक-11
12. जिजीविषा की विजय : कैलाश चंद्र भाटिया		-	-	-	-	LG-12	कार्यपत्रक-12
13. सुभद्रा कुमारी चौहान : महादेवी वर्मा		-	-	-	-	LG-13	कार्यपत्रक-13
14. कुटज : आचार्य हजारीप्रसाद द्विवेदी		-	-	-	-	LG-14	कार्यपत्रक-14
15.ठेस : फणीश्वरनाथ 'रेणु'		-	-	-	-	LG-15	कार्यपत्रक-15
पुस्तक-2			-	-	-	-
प्रथम पृष्ठ- पुस्तक-2	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
16. रीढ़ की हड्डी : जगदीशचन्द्र माथुर		-	-	-	-	LG-16	कार्यपत्रक-16
17. अंडमान डायरी : श्रीकांत वर्मा		-	-	-	-	LG-17	कार्यपत्रक-17
18. यक्ष-प्रश्न : चक्रवर्ती राजगोपालाचारी		-	-	-	-	LG-18	कार्यपत्रक-18
19. लेखन-कौशल : अनुच्छेद लेखन, फीचर तथा रिपोर्टिंग		-	-	-	-	LG-19	कार्यपत्रक-19
20. कार्यालयी पत्राचार		-	-	-	-	LG-20	कार्यपत्रक-20
21. टिप्पणी और प्रारूपण		-	-	-	-	LG-21	कार्यपत्रक-21
22. सभा एवं मंच संचालन और उद्घोषणा		-	-	-	-	LG-22	कार्यपत्रक-22
23.हिंदी के विविध प्रयुक्ति-क्षेत्र		-	-	-	-	LG-23	कार्यपत्रक-23
24. हिंदी और जनसंचार-माध्यम		-	-	-	-	LG-24	कार्यपत्रक-24
25. हिंदी और प्रौद्योगिकी		-	-	-	-	LG-25	कार्यपत्रक-25
अंक विभाजन			-	-	-	-
Sample Question Paper, Marking Scheme & Question Paper Design			-	-	-	-

Syllabus Bifurcation of Mathematics (311) 

Material in PDF		Media		TMA	Learner's Guide		Worksheet
English	Hindi	Video	Audio	TMA	English	Hindi	Hindi	English
1. Book 1 (Eng. Medium) (6569 KB)   2. Book 2 (Eng. Medium) (7906 KB)	1. Book 1 (Hindi Medium) (8171 KB)  2. Book 2 (Hindi Medium) (7904 KB)	Khan Academy Video Tutorials in Hindi Vesrion	-	Tutor Mark Assignment	-	-	General Instructions for Worksheet
First Page	First Page	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
1 - Sets	Lesson 1	L-1(1) L-1(2) L-1(3)	L.1 (1) L.1 (2) L.1 (3)	-	LG-1	-	WS 1 WS 1.1	WS1
2 - Relations and Functions-I	Lesson 2	L-2(1)	1. L-2	-	LG-2	-	WS 2	WS 2 WS 2.1
3 - Trigonometric Functions-I	Lesson 3	L-3 (1)	-	-	LG-3	-	WS  3	WS 3
4 - Trigonometric Functions-II	Lesson 4	L-4(1)	-	-	LG-4	-	WS 4	WS-4
5 - Relation between Sides and Angles of a Triangle	Lesson 5	-	-	-	LG-5	-	WS 5	WS-5
6 - Sequences and Series	Lesson 6	L-6 (1) L-6(2)	-	-	LG-6	-	WS 6	WS-6
7 - Some Special Sequences	Lesson 7	-	-	-	LG-7	-	WS-7	WS 7
8 - Complex Numbers	Lesson 8	L-8 (1) L-8(2)	L-8	-	LG-8	-	WS-8	WS 8
9 - Quadratic Equations and Linear Inequalities	Lesson 9	L-9 (1) L-9(2)	-	-	LG-9	-	WS-9	WS 9
10 - Principle of Mathematical Induction	Lesson 10	-	-	-	LG-10	-	WS-10	WS 10
11 - Permutations and Combinations	Lesson 11	L-11(1) L-11(2)	-	-	LG-11	-	WS-11	WS-11
12 - Binomial Theorem	Lesson 12	L-12 (1) L-12 (2)	-	-	LG-12	-	WS-12	WS-12
13 - Cartesian System of Rectangular Co-ordinates	Lesson 13	-	L-13	-	LG-13	-	WS-13	WS-13
14 - Straight Lines	Lesson 14	-	-	-	LG-14	-	WS-14	WS-14
15 - Circles	Lesson 15	-	L-15	-	LG-15	-	WS-15	WS-15
16 - Conic Sections	Lesson 16	L-17(1)	-	-	LG-16	-	WS-16	WS-16
17 - Measures of Dispersion	Lesson 17	L-17 (1)	-	-	LG-17	-	WS-17	WS-17
18 - Random Experiments and Events	Lesson 18	-	-	-	LG-18	-	WS-18	WS-18
19 - Probability	Lesson 19	-	-	-	LG-19	-	WS-19	WS-19
20 - Matrices	Lesson 20	L-20(1) L-20(2) L-20(3)	1. L-20 (Part1)  2. L-20 (part2)	-	LG-20	-	WS-20	WS-20
21 - Determinants	Lesson 21	L-21 (1)	-	-	LG-21	-	WS-21	WS-21
22 - Inverse of a Matrix and its Applications	Lesson 22	-	-	-	LG-22	-	WS-22	WS-22
23 - Relation and Functions-II	Lesson 23	-	-	-	LG-23	-	WS-23	WS-23
24 - Inverse Trigonometric Functions	Lesson 24	-	-	-	LG-24	-	WS-24	WS-24
25 - Limits and Continuity	Lesson 25	L-25(0) L-25(1) L-25(2) L-25(3)	-	-	LG-25	-	WS-25	WS-25
26 - Differentiation	Lesson 26	L-26(1) L-26(2)	-	-	LG-26	-	WS-26	WS-26
27 - Differentiation of Trigonometric functions	Lesson 27	L-27 (1) L-27(2)	-	-	LG-27	-	WS-27	WS-27
28 - Differentiation of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions	Lesson 28	L-28(1) L-28(2)	-	-	LG-28	-	WS-28	WS-28
29 - Application of Derivatives	Lesson 29	L-29(1) L-29(2)	-	-	LG-29	-	WS-29	WS-29
30 - Integration	Lesson 30	-	-	-	LG-30	-	WS-30	WS-30
31 - Definite Integrals	Lesson 31	-	-	-	LG-31	-	WS-31	WS-31
32 - Differential Equations	Lesson 32	-	-	-	LG-32	-	WS-32	WS-32
33 - Introduction to 3-D	Lesson 33	-	-	-	LG-33	-	WS-33	WS-33
34 - Vectors	Lesson 34	1.L-34(part1) 2. L-34(Part2)	-	-	LG-34	-	WS-34	WS-34
35 - Plane	Lesson 35	-	-	-	LG-35	-	WS-35	WS-35
36 - Straight Line	Lesson 36	-	-	-	LG-36	-	WS-36	WS-36
Lesson-37-Linear Programming	Lesson 37	-	-	-	LG-37	-	WS-37	WS-37
3Lesson-38-Mathematical Reasoning	Lesson 38	Sample Question Paper & Marking Scheme	-	-	LG-38	-	WS-38	WS-38
Sample Question Paper, Marking Scheme & Question Paper Design	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-

India, with its rich cultural tapestry and diverse landscape, envisions a future where progress resonates with the heartbeat of its indigenous roots. In this pursuit, the embrace of indigenous technologies emerges as a cornerstone for Viksit Bharat – a developed India that thrives on innovation, sustainability, and self-reliance. This essay explores the pivotal role of indigenous technologies in propelling India towards this transformative vision.

At its essence, indigenous technologies epitomize the fusion of traditional wisdom with modern innovation. They harness local resources, contextual understanding, and centuries-old knowledge systems to address contemporary challenges across various sectors. One of the most profound impacts of indigenous technologies lies in the realm of sustainability. From renewable energy solutions tailored to India's climate to eco-friendly agricultural practices that ensure food security, these technologies align development with environmental stewardship.

Agricultural technologies stand as a testament to the transformative power of indigenous innovations. By leveraging traditional farming practices alongside modern techniques, India can usher in a green revolution that is not only yield-centric but also ecologically sustainable. Indigenous seed varieties, precision farming methods, and water management systems empower farmers to mitigate risks posed by climate change while enhancing productivity and livelihoods.

Similarly, healthcare technologies rooted in indigenous knowledge systems hold immense promise for equitable healthcare access. India's traditional medicine systems, such as Ayurveda, Yoga, and Naturopathy, offer holistic approaches to wellness that complement modern medicine. Integrating these age-old practices with contemporary healthcare infrastructure paves the way for preventive healthcare, personalized treatments, and community-based health initiatives.

Furthermore, indigenous technologies serve as catalysts for inclusive growth and socio-economic empowerment. By fostering grassroots innovation and entrepreneurship, they create opportunities for marginalized communities to participate in India's development journey. Local artisans, craftsmen, and small-scale industries can harness indigenous technologies to preserve cultural heritage, generate livelihoods, and access global markets.

In the digital age, information technology emerges as a potent enabler of Viksit Bharat. Indigenous innovations in IT, such as vernacular computing, language processing, and rural connectivity solutions, bridge the digital divide and empower every citizen with access to knowledge, services, and opportunities. Moreover, homegrown startups and tech enterprises drive innovation ecosystems that propel India towards becoming a global technology leader.

Space technology stands as a beacon of India's prowess in indigenous innovation. With landmark achievements in satellite launches, lunar exploration, and Mars missions, India's space agency, ISRO, epitomizes the spirit of self-reliance and technological excellence. Indigenous advancements in satellite communication, remote sensing, and navigation systems not only bolster national security and disaster management but also foster international collaboration and space diplomacy.

However, the journey towards Viksit Bharat through indigenous technologies is not devoid of challenges. It requires concerted efforts to overcome infrastructural barriers, bureaucratic hurdles, and investment constraints. Strengthening research and development infrastructure, fostering collaboration between academia, industry, and government, and incentivizing innovation through policy support are imperative to nurture a thriving ecosystem for indigenous technologies.

In conclusion, indigenous technologies embody the soul of Viksit Bharat – a nation that embraces its heritage while embracing the future with resilience and innovation. By harnessing the transformative potential of indigenous knowledge, India can chart a path towards sustainable development, inclusive growth, and global leadership. As the world looks towards a future defined by sustainability and self-reliance, India's journey towards Viksit Bharat serves as an inspiration and a testament to the enduring power of indigenous wisdom in shaping the destiny of nations.

What are the Similarities Between Davis and Penck Cycle of Erosion?

• Davis and Penck cycle of erosion are two models that explain the development of relief in landscapes.
• Both are geographic models.

What is the Difference Between Davis and Penck Cycle of Erosion?

Davis cycle of erosion is the geographic cycle model explained by William Morris Davis in 1899. In contrast, the Penck cycle of erosion is the geographic cycle model explained by Walter Penck in 1924. The key difference between Davis and Penck cycle of erosion is that Davis cycle of erosion is time-dependent and monocyclic while Penck cycle of erosion is not time-dependent and it is polycyclic. Moreover, there are three factors in Davis cycle of erosion as structure, process and stages, while there are five factors in Penck cycle of erosion as Primarumpf, Aufsteigende, Gleichforminge, Absteigende and Endrumpf. Also, according to the Davis cycle of erosion, the cycle starts only when uplift is stopped. In contrast, according to the Penck cycle of erosion, erosion does not remain suspended till the uplift is complete.

What is Davis Cycle of Erosion?

The American geographer William Morris Davis described the Davis cycle of erosion in 1899. He explained the cycle based on the erosion pattern of American mountainous valleys. He paid more attention to endogenic force. Davis cycle of erosion is time-dependent. There are three factors in Davis cycle of erosion. They are structure, process and time (stages). As per Davis, the cycle of erosion occurs as a function of the above three factors.

Figure 01: Possible Evolution of the Cape Town Landscape by Erosion of the Cape Fold Belt Mountains

There is a major assumption in Davis cycle of erosion. He assumed that erosion starts only when the uplift is stopped. During landform development, uplifted landmasses undergo three stages in sequence: youth, maturity, and old stage. Therefore, landforms change from youth stage to maturity stage to old stage in Davis cycle of erosion. At the final stage, landscape relief reduces to its minimum level. Therefore, according to the Davis cycle of erosion, the altitude of the main valley floor decreases with time.

What is Penck Cycle of Erosion?

German geographer Walter Penck introduced the Penck cycle of erosion, which is another geographic model that explains the development of landforms. He studied the Davis cycle of erosion and agreed with most of Davis’s thoughts. However, he disagreed with certain things. The stages component in Davis cycle of erosion is not included in the Penck cycle of erosion. He rejected the idea that the stages are sequential and explained that there might be interruptions of the sequence due to rejuvenation. Furthermore, the Penck cycle of erosion is not time-dependent.

Penck also theorized that the erosion cycle is a never-ending process, meaning that the Penck cycle of erosion is polycyclic. Another important facet of the Penck cycle of erosion is that it says the erosion does not remain suspended till the uplift is complete. Therefore, both upliftment and erosional acts take place simultaneously. Unlike in the Davis cycle of erosion, both endogenic and exogenic forces equally affect the landform formation in the Penck cycle of erosion. There are five stages in Penck cycle of erosion: Primarumpf, Aufsteigende, Gleichforminge, Absteigende and Endrumpf.

Geomorphic Processes – The earth’s surface is being continuously reshaped by both internal (endogenic) and external forces (exogenic). The changes that the endogenic and exogenic forces bring about in the appearance of the surface of the earth are collectively known as geomorphic processes.

• Geomorphological processes are natural mechanisms of erosion, weathering, and deposition that result in the alteration of the surficial materials and landforms at the surface of the earth.
• The exogenic and endogenic forces cause chemical actions and physical pressures on earth materials.
• This brings about changes in the shape of the surface of the earth which is known as geomorphic processes.
• The endogenic processes are mainly land building forces while exogenic forces are mainly land wearing forces.
  • Mass wasting, weathering, deposition, and erosion are exogenic geomorphic processes.
  • Volcanism and Diastrophism are endogenic geomorphic processes. Radioactivity, rotational and tidal friction and primordial heat generating from the interior of the earth are the main sources of energy responsible for the endogenic geomorphic processes.
• Geomorphic Agent – It is a mobile medium, running water, wind, currents, waves, etc. which removes, transports and deposits earth materials. All the movements, within the earth or on the surface of the earth occur due to gradients from high pressure to low pressure regions, from higher to lower levels, etc.
• When these elements of nature become portable due to gradients, they remove the materials and transport them over slopes and deposit them at a lower level.
• The gravitational stresses are as vital as the other geomorphic processes.
• Gravity is the force that is keeping us in contact with the surface and it is the force that switches on the movement of all surface material on earth.
• It is the directional force stimulating all downslope movements of matter and it also causes stresses on the earth’s materials.
• Indirect gravitational stresses stimulate tide and wave-induced winds and currents.
• Without gradients and gravity, there would be no movement and therefore no transportation, erosion, and deposition are possible.
• All the movements either on the surface of the earth or within the earth happen due to gradients —from high pressure to low pressure areas, from higher levels to lower levels, etc.

Diastrophism – The process by which the earth’s surface is reshaped through rock movements and displacement is termed diastrophism. Diastrophism includes –

1. Orogenic processes (mountain building) – which involves mountain building through severe folding and affecting long and narrow belts of the earth’s crust.
2. Epeirogenic processes (continent building) – which involves uplifting or warping of large parts of the earth’s crust.
3. Earthquakes involving local relatively minor movements.
4. Plate tectonics involving horizontal movements of crustal plates.

All the above processes cause pressure, volume and temperature (PVT) changes which result in the metamorphism of rocks. 

The geomorphic process means bringing about changes in the configuration of the Earth’s surface, due to physical stresses and chemical actions on materials present on earth. The physical and chemical actions are due to endogenic and exogenic forces. There are 2 main geomorphic processes.

Which Process is an Internal Geomorphic Process?

The endogenic process is an internal geomorphic process. 

The main force behind this process is the energy emanating from inside the earth. This energy is mainly generated through the 3 processes given below.

1. Primordial heat that existed right from the time earth was created.
2. Rotational and tidal friction
3. Radioactivity

What are the Geomorphic Agents?

A geomorphic agent is a mobile medium which removes, transports and deposits earth materials. The examples of geomorphic agents are running water, glaciers, wind, waves, ocean currents, groundwater etc. All the movements occur due to gradients, from higher levels to lower levels or from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas.

Exogenic Processes

The general term “denudation” includes all the exogenic geomorphic processes. The word “denude” means to uncover or strip off. All the exogenic processes – erosion, weathering, mass movements/wasting and transportation are included in denudation. For each process, there exists a distinct driving force or energy.

The exogenic geomorphic processes vary from place to place due to variations in thermal gradients created by seasonal, latitudinal, land and water spread on the surface of the earth. The type and distribution of vegetation, which mainly depends upon precipitation and temperature, also indirectly influence the exogenic geomorphic processes. The intensity of action of exogenic geomorphic processes depends upon the type and structure of rocks. Different types of rocks with differences in their structure offer varying resistances to various geomorphic processes.

Weathering 

Weathering is the process of disintegration and decomposition of rocks through the actions of various elements of weather and climate. It involves very little or no motion of materials, so it is an in-situ or on-site process.

There are three types of weathering processes: physical weathering, chemical weathering and biological weathering.

1. Physical Weathering – Physical or mechanical weathering is the disintegration of rocks mainly induced by elements of weather. It is caused by the change in pressure, temperature, wind and water. It is further categorised into thermal weathering, frost weathering and exfoliation. More on physical weathering here.
   1. Thermal weathering – Due to high temperature in arid and semi-arid areas, rocks expand during the day and contract at night due to the fall of temperature. Under extreme temperature conditions, the rocks crack and eventually split due to alternate expansion and contraction. Thermal weathering is of two types – granular disintegration and block disintegration.
      1. Granular disintegration – The alternate expansion and contraction of minerals in the rocks due to temperature variations makes the rocks break down into small pieces. Due to this, the break up of rocks occurs, grain by grain. This is known as granular disintegration.
      2. Block disintegration – Due to the great diurnal range of temperature, the rocks may break up along the joints and crack into large rectangular shaped blocks. It occurs in rocks like granite rocks.
   2. Frost wedging – Frozen water takes up more space. When water enters into the cracks of rocks and freezes, the pressure of the frozen water becomes sufficient to expand and further deepen the crack. 
   3. Exfoliation – Due to weather variations, rocks generally heat or cool more on the surface layers. These alternate changes in temperature cause the outer layers to peel off from the main mass of the rock in concentric layers just as the skin of an onion. This process of breaking away curved layers of a rock from the rock beneath and leaving behind a dome-shaped monolith is called exfoliation. Exfoliation usually occurs in arid areas and is also called onion weathering.
2. Chemical weathering – A number of weathering processes e.g solution formation, oxidation, reduction, carbonation, and hydration act on the rocks to disintegrate, decompose and dissolve them into a fine state. The presence of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and temperature speeds up the chemical reactions. The different types of chemical weathering are –
   1. Solution – Soluble minerals present in the rocks get dissolved in water. Over a long period of time, soluble minerals get washed away from the rocks and this can even lead to the formation of caves.
   2. Hydrolysis  – It is the chemical breakdown of a rock material when it comes in contact with water and forms an insoluble precipitate like clay mineral. For example, hydrolysis of feldspar, found in granite changing to clay.
   3. Carbonation – It is the formation of carbonic acid when water reacts with carbon dioxide. This acid reacts with minerals in the rocks. This reaction is important for the formation of caves.
   4. Oxidation – When oxygen combines with water and iron, it weakens the rock and disintegrates it. For example, rusting of iron.
   5. Hydration – Hydration (absorption of water) expands volume and results in rock deformation. For example, absorption of water by anhydrite (CaSO₄) leading to the formation of gypsum (CaSO₄.2H₂O).
3. Biological weathering – It is the alteration of rock by the action of plants, animals and humans. Burrowing and wedging by organisms like termites, rodents, earthworms, etc. help in exposing the rock surfaces to chemical changes with the penetration of moisture and air. Human beings by disturbing vegetation, ploughing and cultivating soils, also help in mixing and creating new contacts between water, air and minerals in the earth’s materials. Decomposition of animal and plant matter helps in the production of humic, carbonic and other acids which increase decomposition and solubility of some elements. Plant roots exert enough pressure on the earth materials and break them apart.

Importance of Weathering

• Weathering processes help in the formation of regolith and soils. It also prepares the soil for erosion and mass movements. 
• Due to the processes of weathering, some materials are removed through physical or chemical leaching by groundwater, thereby increasing the concentration of remaining valuable materials. This process is called enrichment and helps in increasing the concentration of certain valuable ores like copper, aluminium, iron, etc.

Mass Movements

These movements transfer the mass of rock debris down the slopes under the direct influence of gravity. The debris may carry along with it water, air or ice. It is also called mass wasting. It may occur suddenly or slowly. Weathering aids mass movements, however, it is not the prerequisite for mass movements. Weak unconsolidated materials, faults, thinly bedded rocks, steeply dipping beds, steep slopes or vertical cliffs, abundant precipitation, torrential rains and scanty vegetation aids in mass movements. 

Following are the types of mass movements:

1. Rock falls – Rock fall is the free-falling of rock blocks over any steep slope keeping itself away from the slope. It occurs from the superficial layers of the rock face. The accumulation of rock debris at the base of a steep slope is called talus.
2. Rock slides – Rock slides usually follow a zone of weakness. The presence of water increases slippage. Collisions down the slope generally break the rock mass into rubble that eventually results in rock slides. Rock slides affect the materials up to a substantial depth.
3. Landslides – Landslides occur when a large piece of rock breaks off and slides down a hill. It is often initiated by earthquakes and very heavy rain.
4. Slump – Great mass of bedrock moves downward by a rotational slip from a high cliff is known as slump. The main cause of slumping is erosion at the base of the slope which reduces the support for overlying sediments.
5. Debris slide – Debris slide is more extensive and occurs on a large scale. The materials involved in debris slide are a mixture of soils and rock fragments.
6. Debris flow – Debris flow includes mudflow, earth flow and debris avalanches. In this type of mass movement, turbulence occurs throughout the mass. It usually occurs when the rock or soil mass loses coherence due to a large amount of water involved. Debris mixes up with water and flows as liquid mud. It may carry large boulders which are very destructive.
   1. When earth material moves down a hill as a fluid-like mass, it is called an earth flow. These usually occur in humid regions on steep slopes with thick, clay-rich soil that becomes saturated with water during storms.
   2. Mud flow is a liquid mass of soil, rock debris and water that moves quickly down a well-defined channel. It mostly occurs in mountainous semi-arid environments. A mud flow originating on a volcanic slope is called a lahar.
   3. The deadliest type of debris flow is the debris avalanche. It is a rapidly churning mass of rock debris, soil, air and water that moves down steep slopes. The air in the flow may enhance the speed of an avalanche by acting as a cushion between the debris and the underlying surfaces.
7. Creep – It is a slow and gradual movement of soil downhill. Its velocity is usually less than a centimetre per year. Freezing and thawing contribute to the soil creep by progressively moving soil particles down the hill.

Erosion and Deposition

• Erosion involves the acquisition and transportation of rock debris. Erosion like weathering and mass wasting is a degradational process. This process is caused by the dynamic activity of erosive agents like wind, running water, glaciers, waves and groundwater. The agents, wind (gaseous state), running water (liquid state) and glacier (solid state) are controlled by climatic conditions. The other two agents – waves and groundwater do not depend on climate. In the case of waves, the location along the interface of litho and hydrosphere (coastal region) determines the work of waves, whereas the work of groundwater is determined more by the lithological character of the region.
• Erosion degrades relief, i.e., the landscape is worn down. The process of erosion is hugely responsible for continuous changes that the earth’s surface is undergoing. Denudational processes like erosion and transportation are controlled by kinetic energy.
• The erosional agents lose their velocity and energy on gentler slopes and the materials carried by them start to settle themselves. Thus, deposition is a result of erosion. The coarser materials get deposited first and finer ones settle later. The same erosional geomorphic agents – running water, wind, glacier, waves and groundwater act as depositional or aggradational agents also. Depositions fill up the depressions.

Soil Formation (Pedogenesis)

Soil formation, pedogenesis, depends primarily on weathering. The depth of the weathered material (weathering mantle) forms the basic source for soil formation. First, the weathered material or transported deposits are colonised by bacteria and other inferior plant bodies like lichens and mosses. Also, several minor organisms may take shelter within the mantle and deposits. The dead remains of plants and organisms help in the growth of humus. Minor grasses and ferns may grow, then bushes and trees start growing through seeds brought in by wind and birds. Roots of the plants grow and penetrate down, burrowing animals bring up particles, mass of material become porous with a capacity to hold water and to permit the passage of air and finally a mature soil- a complex mixture of mineral and organic products form.

Soil forming factors – The following five factors control the formation of soil;

1. Parent material
2. Topography 
3. Climate
4. Biological activity
5. Time. 

The relative influence of each other varies from place to place, but the combination of all the different factors usually determine the form of soil growing at any given location.

1. Parent material – Parent materials can be any in-situ or on-site weathered rock debris (residual soils) or transported deposits (transported soils). Soil formation depends upon the size of debris and structure as well as the chemical composition of the rock debris/deposits. Younger soils show strong links with the type of the parent rock but as they age, the exposure to moisture, the addition to organic matter and other environmental factors may change its features.
2. Topography (relief, altitude and slope) – Soils are thin on steep slopes because water runs down faster and erodes the surfaces of slopes. Also slopes may be exposed to direct sunlight which may dry out soil moisture and render it less fertile. Over gentler slopes where erosion is slow and percolation of water is good, soil formation is very favourable. Soils over flat areas develop a thick layer of clay with good accumulation of organic matter giving the soil its dark colour. 
3. Climate – It is one of the key factors in the formation of soil. Two important climatic components – precipitation and temperature are involved in soil development.
   1. Precipitation – Precipitation gives soil its moisture content which makes the chemical and biological activities possible. Excess water transports soil components through the soil (eluviation) and deposits these components down below (illuviation). In regions with high rainfall, elements like sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium and a major part of silica are removed from the soil. The process of removal of silica from the soil is known as desilication. In regions with dry climate, evaporation exceeds precipitation leaving the soils rich in salts. Such salts form into a crust in the soil known as hardpans. In tropical climates and regions with intermediate rainfall, calcium carbonate nodules (kankers) are formed.
   2. Temperature – Chemical activity is enhanced in higher temperatures, reduced in cooler temperatures (with an exception of carbonation) and stops in freezing conditions. Thus, tropical soils with higher temperatures show deeper soil profiles and in the frozen tundra regions, soils contain largely mechanically broken materials.
4. Biological activity – The vegetation and organisms in the soil help in adding organic matter, moisture retention, nitrogen, etc. Dead plants add humus, a finely divided organic matter of the soil. During humification, some organic acids are formed which help in decomposing the minerals of the soil parent materials. 
   1. Biological activity in the soil depends upon the climate of that region. In cold climates, humus accumulates as bacterial growth is slow. With undecomposed organic matter due to low bacterial activity, layers of peat develop in sub-arctic and tundra climates. In humid tropical and equatorial climates, due to intense bacterial activity, dead vegetation is rapidly oxidised leaving very low humus content in the soil. Bacteria like rhizobium fix nitrogen beneficial to the host. The process of conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia or related nitrogenous compounds is called nitrogen fixation. Ants, termites, earthworms, rodents, etc. are also important in soil formation as they rework the soil up and down.
5. Time – A fully mature soil is formed when all soil-forming processes act for a sufficiently long time developing a profile. Freshly deposited alluvium is considered young with no or only poorly developed horizons.

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1. The planet earth came into existence sometime between 4 and 5 billion years ago.Life evolved on planet earth about 3.5 billion years ago. Since then, approximately 15 million different species of organisms have evolved

2. Origin of life means the appearance of simplest primordial life from nonliving matter.

3. Evolution of life means the gradual formation of complex organisms from simpler ones.

4. The widely accepted theory is the Chemosynthetic theory of origin of life, proposed by A.I. Oparin

5. Chemosynthetic Theory Life might have originated at first on earth through a series of combinations of chemical substances in the distant past and it all happened in water.

6. Chemosynthetic Process
-The earth originated about 5 billion years ago.
- It was initially made up of hot gases and vapours of various chemicals.
- Gradually it cooled down and a solid crust was formed.
-The early atmosphere contained ammonia (NH3), water vapour (H2O), hydrogen
(H2), methane (CH4). At that time there was no free oxygen. This sort of atmosphere (with methane, ammonia and hydrogen) is still found on Jupiter and Saturn
-Heavy rains fell on the hot surface of earth, and over a very very long period the water bodies appeared that still contained hot water.
- Methane and ammonia from the atmosphere dissolved in the water of the seas.
- In this water, chemical reactions occurred and gave rise to amino acids, nitrogenous bases, sugars and fatty acids which further reacted and combined to give rise to biomolecules of life such as proteins and nucleic acids.

7. Probable stages in the origin of life

#1. First stage : The sources of energy were the ultraviolet rays or electric discharge (lightening) or heat. Either alone or a combination of these energy sources caused reactions that
produced complex organic compounds (including amino acids) from a mixture of ammonia (NH3), methane (CH4), water (H2O) and hydrogen (H2). The amino acids
are the building blocks of proteins which are the main components of protoplasm.

NOTE : Stanley Miller and Harold C. Urey in 1953 set up an experiment with an air-tight apparatus  in which four gases (NH4, CH4, H2 and H2O) were subjected to an electric discharge for one week. On analyzing the liquid, they found a variety of organic substances in it, such as amino acids, urea, acetic acid, and lactic acid

#2. Second Stage : Simple organic molecules combined to form large molecules which included peptides (leading to the formation of proteins), sugars, starch and fat molecules.

#3. Third stage : The large molecules of different kinds combined together to form multi-molecular heaps or complexes. Some simple fat molecules arranged themselves around this
molecular complex in a sort of membrane. It was observed in the laboratory experiments that when such complexes reached a certain size they separated from the surrounding solution in the form of what were termed “coacervate drops” of microscopic size, moving in the liquid with a definite boundary (coacervate means “heap” referring to the combining together of the molecules). Coacervate like aggregates were probably the precursors of the first living cells. Some sort of “metabolism” could occur within these coacervates with synthesis of certain substances and breakdown of others. The latter (i.e. breakdown reactions) could provide energy.Some of the earliest formed proteins might have acted like enzymes and would have
affected the rates of reactions. It is also believed that RNA molecules might have shown enzymatic activity in the “primordial soup” of chemical compounds. Such molecules have been termed ribozymes.

1. The major nutrients in our food are carbohydrates, proteins,fats, vitamins and minerals. In addition, food also contains dietary fibres and water.
2. Carbohydrates and fats mainly provide energy to our body.
3. Proteins and minerals are needed for the growth and the maintenance of our body.
4. Vitamins help in protecting our body against diseases.
5. Balanced diet provides all the nutrients that our body needs, in right quantities, along with adequate amount of roughage and water.
6. Deficiency of one or more nutrients in our food for a long time may cause certain diseases or disorders.

#.2. Getting to Know Plants ::
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1. Plants are usually grouped into herbs, shrubs and trees based on their height, nature of stem and branches.
2. The stem bears leaves, flowers and fruits.
3. Leaf usually has a petiole and lamina.
4. The pattern of veins on the leaf is called venation. It can be reticulate or parallel.
5. Leaves give out water vapour through the process of transpiration.
6. Green leaves make their food by the process of photosynthesis using carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight.
7. Roots absorb water and minerals from the soil. They also anchor theplant firmly in the soil.
8. Roots are mainly of two types: tap root and fibrous root.
9. Plants having leaves with reticulate venation have tap roots while plants having leaves with parallel venation have fibrous roots.
10. The stem conducts water from roots to the leaves (and other parts) and food from leaves to other parts of the plant.
11. The parts of a flower are sepals, petals, stamens and pistil.

#.3. Body Movements ::
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1. Bones and cartilage form the skeleton of the human body. It gives theframe and shape to the body and helps in movement. It protects the inner organs.
2. The human skeleton comprises the skull, the back bone, ribs and the breast bone, shoulder and hipbones, and the bones of hands and legs.
3. The bones are moved by alternate contractions and relaxations of two sets of muscles.
4. The bone joints are of various kinds depending on the nature of joints and direction of movement they allow.
5. Strong muscles and light bones work together to help the birds fly. They fly by flapping their wings.
6. Fish swim by forming loops alternately on two sides of the body.
7. Snakes slither on the ground by looping sideways. A large number of bones and associated muscles push the body forward.
8. The body and legs of cockroaches have hard coverings forming an outer skeleton. The muscles of the breast connected with three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings help the cockroach to walk and fly.
9. Earthworms move by alternate extension and contraction of the body using muscles. Tiny bristles on the underside of the body help in gripping the ground.
10. Snails move with the help of a muscular foot.

#.4. The Living Organisms — Characteristics and Habitats ::
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1. The surroundings where plants and animals live, is called their habitat.
2. Several kinds of plants and animals may share the same habitat.
3. The presence of specific features and habits, which enable a plant or an animal to live in a particular habitat, is called adaptation.
4. There are many types of habitats, however, these may be broadly grouped as terrestrial (on the land) and aquatic (in water).
5. There is a wide variety of organisms present in different habitats.
6. Plants, animals and microorganisms together constitute biotic components.
7. Rocks, soil, air, water, light and temperature are some of the abiotic components of our surroundings.
8. Living things have certain common characteristics — they need food, they respire and, excrete, respond to their environment, reproduce, grow and show movement.

#.5. Nutrition in Plants ::
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1. All organisms need food and utilise it to get energy for growth and maintenance of their body.
2. Green plants synthesise food for themselves by the process of photosynthesis. They are autotrophs.
3. Plants like Cuscuta are parasites. They take food from the host plant.
4. Plants use simple chemical substances like carbon dioxide, water and minerals for the synthesis of food.
5. Chlorophyll, water, carbon dioxide and sunlight are the essential requirements for photosynthesis.
6. Complex chemical substances such as carbohydrates are the products of photosynthesis.
7. Solar energy is absorbed by the chlorophylls present in leaves/plants.
8. Oxygen is produced during photosynthesis.
9. Oxygen released in photosynthesis is utilised by living organisms for their survival.
10. Many fungi derive nutrition from dead and decaying matter. They are saprotrophs.
11. A few plants and all animals are dependent on others for their nutrition and are called heterotrophs.

#.6. Nutrition in Animals ::
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1. Animal nutrition includes nutrient requirement, mode of intake of food and its utilisation in the body.
2. The human digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and secretory glands. It consists of the (i) buccal cavity, (ii) oesophagus,
3. (iii) stomach, (iv) small intestine, (v) large intestine ending in rectum and (vi) anus. The main digestive glands which secrete digestive juices
4. are (i) the salivary glands, (ii) the liver and (iii) the pancreas. The stomach wall and the wall of the small intestine also secrete digestive juices.
5. The modes of feeding vary in different organisms.
6. Nutrition is a complex process involving: (i) ingestion, (ii) digestion, (iii) absorption, (iv) assimilation and (v) egestion.
7. Digestion of carbohydrates, like starch, begins in the buccal cavity. The digestion of protein starts in the stomach. The bile secreted from the
8. liver, the pancreatic juice from the pancreas and the digestive juice from the intestinal wall complete the digestion of all components of food
9. in the small intestine. The digested food is absorbed in the blood vessels from the small intestine.
10. The absorbed substances are transported to different parts of the body. Water and some salts are absorbed from the undigested food in the large intestine.
11. The undigested and unabsorbed residues are expelled out of the body as faeces through the anus.
12. The grazing animals like cows, buffaloes and deer are known as ruminants. They quickly ingest, swallow their leafy food and store it in the rumen. Later, the food returns to the mouth and the animal chews it peacefully.
13. Amoeba ingests its food with the help of its false feet or pseudopodia. The food is digested in the food vacuole.

#.7. Respiration in Organisms ::
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1. Respiration is essential for survival of living organisms. It releases energy from the food.
2. The oxygen we inhale is used to breakdown glucose into carbon dioxide and water. Energy is released in the process.
3. The breakdown of glucose occurs in the cells of an organism (cellular respiration).
4.  If the food is broken down with the use of oxygen, it is called aerobic respiration. If the breakdown occurs without the use of oxygen, the respiration is called anaerobic respiration.
5. During heavy exercise when the supply of oxygen to our muscle cells is insufficient, food breakdown is by anaerobic respiration.
6. Breathing is a part of the process of respiration during which an organism takes in the oxygen-rich air and gives out air rich in carbon dioxide. The respiratory organs for the exchange of gases vary in different organisms.
7. During inhalation, our lungs expand and then come back to the original state as the air moves out during exhalation.
8. Increased physical activity enhances the rate of breathing.
9.  In animals like cow, buffalo, dog and cat the respiratory organs and the process of breathing are similar to those in humans.
10. In earthworm, the exchange of gases occurs through the moist skin. In fishes it takes place through gills and in insects through the tracheae.
11.  In a plant the roots take in air present in the soil. Leaves have tiny pores called stomata through which they exchange gases. The breakdown of glucose in the plant cells is similar to that in other living beings.

#.8. Transportation in Animals and Plants ::
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1. In most animals the blood that circulates in the body distributes food and oxygen to different cells of the body. It also carries waste products from different parts of the body for excretion.
2. Circulatory system consists of the heart and blood vessels.
3. In humans, blood flows through arteries and veins and the heart acts as a pumping organ.
4. Blood consists of plasma, RBC, WBC and platelets. Blood is red due to the presence of a red pigment, haemoglobin.
5. The human heart beats about 70–80 times per minute in an adult person. This is called heart rate.
6. Arteries carry blood from the heart to all parts of the body.
7. Veins carry blood from all parts of the body back to the heart.
8. Removal of waste products from the body is called excretion.
9. Excretory system of humans consists of two kidneys, two ureters, a urinary bladder, and urethra.
10. Salts and urea are removed along with water as sweat.
11. Fish excrete waste substances such as ammonia which directly dissolve in water.
12. Birds, insects and lizard excrete uric acid in semi-solid form.
13. Water and mineral nutrients are absorbed by roots from the soil.
14. Nutrients are transported along with water to the entire plant via the vascular tissue called xylem.
15. The vascular tissue for the transport of food to the various parts of the plant is phloem.
16. A lot of water is lost by plants in the form of vapour through stomata during transpiration.
17. Transpiration generates a force which pulls up water absorbed by the roots from the soil, to reach the stem and leaves.

#.9. Reproduction in Plants ::
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1. All organisms multiply or reproduce their own kind.
2. In plants there are two modes of reproduction, asexual and sexual.
3. There are several methods of asexual reproduction such as fragmentation, budding, spore formation and vegetative propagation.
4. Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes.
5. In vegetative propagation new plants are produced from different vegetative parts such as leaves, stems and roots.
6. Flower is the reproductive part of a plant.
7. A flower may be unisexual with either the male or the female reproductive parts.
8. A bisexual flower has both the male and the female reproductive parts.
9. The male gametes are found inside the pollen grains and female gametes are found in the ovule.
10. Pollination is the process of transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the stigma of the same or another flower.
11. Pollination is of two types, self-pollination and cross-pollination. In self-pollination, pollen grains are transferred from the anther to the stigma of the same flower. In cross-pollination, pollen grains are transferred from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower of the same kind.
12. Pollination takes place in plants with the help of wind, water and insects.
13. The fusion of male and female gametes is called fertilisation.
14. Fertilised egg is called zygote. Zygote develops into an embryo.
15. Fruit is the mature ovary whereas ovule develops into a seed, which contains the developing embryo.
16. Seed dispersal is aided by wind, water and animals.
17. Seed dispersal helps the plants to (i) prevent overcrowding, (ii) avoid competition for sunlight, water and minerals and (iii) invade new habitats.

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